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[不定项选择题]In the idealized version of how science is done, facts about the world are waiting to be observed and collected by objective researchers who use the scientific method to carry out their work. But in the everyday practice of science, discovery frequently follows an ambiguous and complicated route. We aim to be objective, but we cannot escape the context of our unique life experience. Prior knowledge and interest influence what we experience, what we think our experiences mean, and the subsequent actions we take. Opportunities for misinterpretation, error, and self-deception abound.
Consequently, discovery claims should be thought of as protoscience. Similar to newly staked mining claims, they are full of potential. But it takes collective scrutiny and acceptance to transform a discovery claim into a mature discovery. This is the credibility process, through which the individual researcher’s me, here, now becomes the community’sanyone, anywhere, anytime. Objective knowledge is the goal, not the starting point.
Once a discovery claim becomes public, the discoverer receives intellectual credit. But, unlike with mining claims, the community takes control of what happens next. Within the complex social structure of the scientific community, researchers make discoveries; editors and reviewers act as gatekeepers by controlling the publication process; other scientists use the new finding to suit their own purposes; and finally, the public (including other scientists) receives the new discovery and possibly accompanying technology. As a discovery claim works it through the community, the interaction and confrontation between shared and competing beliefs about the science and the technology involved transforms an individual’s discovery claim into the community’s credible discovery.
Two paradoxes exist throughout this credibility process. First, scientific work tends to focus on some aspect of prevailing Knowledge that is viewed as incomplete or incorrect. Little reward accompanies duplication and confirmation of what is already known and believed. The goal is new-search, not re-search. Not surprisingly, newly published discovery claims and credible discoveries that appear to be important and convincing will always be open to challenge and potential modification or refutation by future researchers. Second, novelty itself frequently provokes disbelief. Nobel Laureate and physiologist Albert Szent-Gy?rgyi once described discovery as “seeing what everybody has seen and thinking what nobody has thought.” But thinking what nobody else has thought and telling others what they have missed may not change their views. Sometimes years are required for truly novel discovery claims to be accepted and appreciated.
In the end, credibility “happens” to a discovery claim—a process that corresponds to what philosopher Annette Baier has described as the commons of the mind. “We reason together, challenge, revise, and complete each other’s reasoning and each other’s conceptions of reason.”
Albert Szent-Gy?rgyi would most likely agree that _______.
A.scientific claims will survive challenges
B.discoveries today inspire future research
C.efforts to make discoveries are justified
D.scientific work calls for a critical mind
[不定项选择题]Just how much does the Constitution protect your digital data? The Supreme Court will now consider whether police can search the contents of a mobile phone without a warrant if the phone is on or around a person during an arrest.
California has asked the justices to refrain from a sweeping ruling, particularly one that upsets the old assumptions that authorities may search through the possessions of suspects at the time of their arrest. It is hard, the state argues, for judges to assess the implications of new and rapidly changing technologies.
The court would be recklessly modest if it followed California’s advice. Enough of the implications are discernable, even obvious, so that the justice can and should provide updated guidelines to police, lawyers and defendants.
They should start by discarding California’s lame argument that exploring the contents of a smart phone—a vast storehouse of digital information—is similar to, say, going through a suspect’s purse.The court has ruled that police don't violate the Fourth Amendment when they go through the wallet or pocketbook of an arrestee without a warrant. But exploring one’s smart phone is more like entering his or her home. A smart phone may contain an arrestee’s reading history, financial history, medical history and comprehensive records of recent correspondence. The development of “cloud computing,” meanwhile, has made that exploration so much the easier.
Americans should take steps to protect their digital privacy. But keeping sensitive information on these devices is increasingly a requirement of normal life. Citizens still have a right to expect private documents to remain private and protected by the Constitution’s prohibition on unreasonable searches.
As so often is the case, stating that principle doesn’t ease the challenge of line-drawing. In many cases, it would not be overly onerous for authorities to obtain a warrant to search through phone contents. They could still trump Fourth Amendment protections when facing severe, exigent circumstances, such as the threat of immediate harm, and they could take reasonable measures to ensure that phone data are not erased or altered while a warrant is pending. The court, though, may want to allow room for police to cite situations where they are entitled to more leeway.
But the justices should not swallow California’s argument whole. New, disruptive technology sometimes demands novel applications of the Constitution’s protections. Orin Kerr, a law professor, compares the explosion and accessibility of digital information in the 21st century with the establishment of automobile use as a digital necessity of life in the 20th: The justices had to specify novel rules for the new personal domain of the passenger car then; they must sort out how the Fourth Amendment applies to digital information now.
The author believes that exploring one’s phone content is comparable to ______.
Orin Kerr’s comparison is quoted to indicate that ______.
A.the Constitution should be implemented flexibly
B.New technology requires reinterpretation of the Constitution
C.California’s argument violates principles of the Constitution
D.Principles of the Constitution should never be altered
[不定项选择题]The journal Science is adding an extra round of statistical checks to its peer-review process, editor-in-chief Marcia McNutt announced today. The policy follows similar efforts from other journals, after widespread concern that basic mistakes in data analysis are contributing to the irreproducibility of many published research findings.
“Readers must have confidence in the conclusions published in our journal,” writes McNutt in an editorial. Working with the American Statistical Association, the journal has appointed seven experts to a statistics board of reviewing editors (SBoR
E). Manuscript will be flagged up for additional scrutiny by the journal’s internal editors, or by its existing Board of Reviewing Editors or by outside peer reviewers. The SBoRE panel will then find external statisticians to review these manuscripts.
Asked whether any particular papers had impelled the change, Mc Nutt said: “The creation of the ‘statistics board’ was motivated by concerns broadly with the application of statistics and data analysis in scientific research and is part of Science’s overall drive to increase reproducibility in the research we publish.”
Giovanni Parmigiani, a biostatistician at the Harvard School of Public Health, a member of the SBoRE group, says he expects the board to “play primarily an advisory role”. He agreed to join because he “found the foresight behind the establishment of the SBoRE to be novel, unique and likely to have a lasting impact. This impact will not only be through the publications in Science itself, but hopefully through a larger group of publishing places that may want to model their approach after Science”.
John Ioannidis, a physician who studies research methodology, says that the policy is “a most welcome step forward” and “long overdue”. “Most journals are weak in statistical review, and this damages the quality of what they publish. I think that, for the majority of scientific papers nowadays, statistical review is more essential than expert review,” he says. But he noted that biomedical journals such as Annals of Internal Medicine, the Journal of the American Medical Association and The Lancet pay strong attention to statistical review.
Professional scientists are expected to know how to analyze data, but statistical errors are alarmingly common in published research, according to David Vaux, a cell biologist. Researchers should improve their standards, he wrote in 2012, but journals should also take a tougher line, “engaging reviewers who are statistically literate and editors who can verify the process”. Vaux says that Science’s idea to pass some papers to statisticians “has some merit, but a weakness is that it relies on the board of reviewing editors to identify ‘the papers that need scrutiny’ in the first place”.
Which of the following is the best title of the text?
A.Science Joins Push to Screen Statistics in Papers
B.Professional Statisticians Deserve More Respect
C.Data Analysis Finds Its Way onto Editors’ Desks
D.Statisticians Are Coming Back with Science
[不定项选择题]根据下面资料，回答题
I′ve often wondered how exactly sleep, or lack of it, can have such an awful effect on our bodies and, guess what, how much we sleep switches good genes on and bad genes off.
In the first half of 2013, the Sleep Research Centre at the University of Surrey found a direct link between hours spent sleeping and genes. Every cell in our bodies carries genetic instructions in our DNA that act as a kind of operating handbook. However, each cell only "reads" the part of this handbook it needs at any given moment.
Can sleep affect how a gene reads instructions It′s a question asked by Professor Derk-Jan Dijk at the University of Surrey. He set up an experiment and asked his volunteers to spend a week sleeping around seven and a half hours to eight hours a night and the next sleeping six and a half to seven hours.
Blood samples were taken each week to compare which genes in blood cells were being used during the long and short nights. The results were rather surprising. Several hundred genes changed in the amount they were being used, including some that are linked to heart disease, cancer, and Type 2 diabetes. Genes to do with cell repair and replacement were used much less.
Sleep restriction (six and a half to seven hours a night) changed 380 genes. Of these,220 genes were down regulated (their power was reduced), while 160 were up regulated (their power was increased). Those affected included body-clock genes which are linked to diabetes. One of the most downgraded genes is that which has a role in controlling insulin and is linked to diabetes and insomnia. The most upgraded gene is linked to heart disease.
So changing sleep by tiny amounts can upgrade or downgrade genes that can influence our health and the diseases we suffer from when we sleep too little.
The important message is that getting close to eight hours of sleep a night can make a dramatic difference to our health in just a few days through the way it looks after our genes.
What can we learn about Professor Derk-Jan Dijk′ s experiment 查看材料
A.The experiment was carried out to find the answer to how genes affect sleep.
B.The experiment took a period of more than two weeks to reach a conclusion.
C.His volunteers were divided into two groups with two different sleeping patterns.
D.Blood samples of the volunteers were checked afterwards to decide how many genes changed in sleeping.
[不定项选择题]共用题干
A铜业公司是某大型企业的控股子公司，2009年，A铜业公司新建采用艾萨熔炼技术生产铜及硫酸的项目，项目于2009年1月开始建设，9月10日投产运行。项目主要工艺设备有艾萨熔炼炉、电炉、余热锅炉等。艾萨熔炼炉产生的高温烟气进入余热锅炉，经热交换后产生蒸汽，热交换后的烟气经除尘净化系统处理后排放。余热锅炉设计额定蒸汽压力2.5MPa、额定蒸发量35t/h、额定蒸汽温度350℃。2009年11月24日20时，当班调度甲听到一声巨响，随即在监控系统屏幕上看到余热锅炉房有大量蒸汽喷出。甲按照应急救援预案要求立即拉响警报，通知紧急停炉和现场人员撤离，报告公司总经理乙。乙接报后，立即向上级有关部门报告，同时赶往现场指挥救援。21时，经人员清点，仍有5名职工下落不明，乙派2名工人进入现场查看情况。因现场蒸汽太大，2名工人被烫伤，于是紧急外调防护服，救援人员穿上防护服进入余热锅炉房，发现有4名职工死亡、1人重伤。事后查明，事故发生时余热锅炉的运行压力2.3MPa、蒸汽温度310℃，从熔炼炉到余热锅炉的冷却屏波纹金属软管爆裂，大量高温饱和蒸汽喷出，导致现场人员伤亡。此次事故的直接经济损失为420万元。
根据以上场景，回答下列问题（共14分，每题2分，1～3题为单选题，4～7题为多选题）：
该起事故调查中，针对技术缺陷方面的分析应包括()
A.余热锅炉的操作规程
B.冷却屏波纹金属软管的质量
C.余热锅炉的工程设计
D.冷却屏波纹金属软管的爆炸当量
E.A铜业公司的安全生产责任制
